CityLLM: A framework for natural-language querying of semantic 3D city models

Abstract

Semantic 3D city models provide rich geometric and semantic information, but remain challenging for non-experts and interdisciplinary researchers to access and query due to their complex structures and specialized data formats. To address this issue, we present CityLLM, a framework for natural-language querying of semantic 3D city models alongside complementary urban datasets. The framework combines spatial and graph databases within an LLM-based workflow that supports iterative query refinement and cross-database chaining. We evaluate CityLLM on a CityJSON dataset of Rotterdam (853 LoD2 buildings) using GPT-OSS, Gemini 3.1, and GPT-5.4, along with selected variants, across multiple metrics: answer correctness, visualization correctness, query success, and retry attempts. A total of 54 natural-language queries are curated across four scenarios: spatial, graph, cross-database, and conversational. Results show strong overall performance, with answer correctness ranging from 85.2% to 100%, visualization correctness from 92.9% to 100%, a 100% query success rate, and fewer than three retries across all 54 queries. Overall, the findings suggest that CityLLM provides a lightweight and extensible approach for conversational access to semantic 3D city data.